Harmonics-Generation, Vermehrung und Spülen Techniques in nichtlinearen Lasten

Harmonics-Generation, Vermehrung und Spülen Techniques in nichtlinearen Lasten

Hadeed Ahmed Sher1, Khaled E. Addoweesh 1 and Yasin Khan2

1. Einführung

Industrial revolution has transformed the whole life with advanced technological improvements. The major contribution in the industrial revolution is due to the availability of electrical power that is distributed through electrical utilities around the world. The concept of power quality in this context is emerging as a “Basic Right” of user for safety as well as for uninterrupted working of their equipment. The electricity users whether domestic or industrial, need power, free from glitches, distortions, Flimmern, noise and outages. The utility desires that the users use good quality equipment so that they do not produce power quality threats for the system. The use of power electronic based devices in this industrial world has saved bounties in term of fuel and power savings, but on the other hand has created problems due to the generation of harmonics. Both commercial and domestic users use the devices with power electronics based switching that draw harmonic current. This current is a dominant factor in producing the harmonically polluted voltages. The “Basic Right” of the user is to have a clean power supply, whereas the demand of utility is to have good quality instrument/equipment. This makes power quality a point of common interest for both the users as well as the utility. Harmonics being a hot topic within power quality domain has been an area of discussion since decades and several design standards have been devised and published by various international organizations and institutions for maintaining a harmonically free power supply. In a wider scenario, the harmonically free environment means that the harmonics generated by the devices and its presence in the system is confined in the allowable limits so that they do not cause any damage to the power system components including the transformers, insulators, switch-gears etc. The deregulation of power systems is forcing the utilities to purge the harmonics at the very end of their generation before it comes to the main streamline and becomes a possible cause of system un-stability. The possible three stage scheme for harmonics control is

  • Identification of harmonics sources
  • Measurement of harmonics level
  • Possible purging techniques

To follow the above scheme the power utilities have R&D sections that are involved in continuous research to keep the harmonics levels within the allowed limits. Power frequency harmonics problems that have been a constant area of research are:

  • Power factor correction in harmonically polluted environment
  • Failure of insulation co-ordination system
  • Wellenformverzerrung
  • De-rating of transformer, Kabel, switch-gears and power factor correction capacitors

The above mentioned research challenges are coped with the help of regulatory bodies that are focused much on designing and implementing the standards for harmonics control. Engineering consortiums like IEEE, IET, and IEC have designed standards that describe the allowable limits for harmonics. The estimation, measurement, analysis and purging techniques of harmonics are an important stress area that needs a firm grip of power quality engineers. Nowadays, apart from the traditional methods like Y-∆ connection for 3rd harmonic suppression, modern methods based on artificial intelligence techniques aids the utility engineers to suppress and purge the harmonics in a better fashion. The modern approaches include:

  • Fuzzy logic based active harmonics filters

  • Wavelet techniques for analysis of waveforms

  • Sophisticated PWM techniques for switching of power electronics switches

The focus of this chapter is to explain all the possible sources of harmonics generation, identification of harmonics, their measurement level as well as their purging/suppression techniques. This chapter will be helpful to all electrical engineers in general and the utility engineers in particular.

2. Was sind Oberwellen?

In electrical power engineering the term harmonics refers to a sinusoidal waveform that is a multiple of the frequency of system. Deshalb, the frequency which is three times the fundamental is known as third harmonics; five times the fundamental is fifth harmonic; usw.. The harmonics of a system can be defined generally using the eq. 1

fh= hfac

Where fh is the hth harmonic and fac is the fundamental frequency of system.

Harmonics follow an inverse law in the sense that greater the harmonic level of a particular harmonic frequency, the lower is its amplitude as shown in Fig.1. Deshalb, usually in power line harmonics higher order harmonics are not given much importance. The vital and the most troublesome harmonics are thus 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th und 13th. The general expression of harmonics waveforms is given in eq. 2

Vn= Vrnsin (nωt)

Wo, INrn is the rms voltage of any particular frequency (harmonic or power line).

The harmonics that are odd multiples of fundamental frequency are known as Odd harmonics and those that are even multiples of fundamental frequency are termed as Even harmonics. The frequencies that are in between the odd and even harmonics are called inter-harmonics.

Although, the ideal demand for any power utility is to have sinusoidal currents and voltages in AC system, this is not for all time promising, the currents and voltages with complex waveforms do occur in practice. Thus any complex waveform generated by such devices is a mixture of fundamental and the harmonics. Deshalb, the voltage across a harmonically polluted system can be expressed numerically in eq. 3,

V = Vfpsin(ωt ϕ1)+ V2psin(2ωt ϕ2)+ V3psin(3ωt ϕ3)+ Vnpsin(nωt ϕn)

Wo,

INfp = Peak value of the fundamental frequency

INnp= Peak value of the nth harmonic component

φ = Angle of the respected frequency

 

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Abbildung 1.

Fundamental and harmonics frequency waveforms

Ähnlich, the expression for current through a given circuit in a harmonically polluted system is given by the expression given in eq. 4

I = Ifpsin(ωt ϕ1)+ I2psin(2ωt ϕ2)+ I3psin(3ωt ϕ3)…… Inpsin(nωt ϕn)

Harmonic components are also termed as positive, negative and zero sequence. In this case the harmonics that changes with the fundamental are called positive and those that have phasor direction opposite with the fundamental are called negative sequence components. The zero components do not take any affect from the fundamental and is considered neutral in its behavior. Phasor direction is pretty much important in case of motors. Positive sequence component tends to drive the motor in proper direction. Whereas the negative sequence component decreases the useful torque. Die 7th, 13th, 19th etc. are positive sequence components. The negative sequence components are 5th, 11th, 17th usw.. The zero component harmonics are 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. As the amplitude of harmonics decreases with the increase in harmonic order therefore, in power systems the utilities are more concerned about the harmonics up to 11th order only.

3. Harmonics generation

In most of the cases the harmonics in voltage is a direct product of current harmonics. Deshalb, the current harmonics is the actual cause of harmonics generation. Power line harmonics are generated when a load draws a non-linear current from a sinusoidal voltage. Nowadays all computers use Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) that convert utility AC voltage to regulate low voltage DC for internal electronics. These power supplies have higher efficiency as compared to linear power supplies and have some other advantages too. But being based on switching principle, these non-linear power supplies draw current in high amplitude short pulses. These pulses are rich in harmonics and produce voltage drop across system impedance. So, it creates many small voltage sources in series with the main AC source as shown in Fig.2. Here in Fig.2 Ich3 refers to the third harmonic component of the current drawn by the non-linear load, Ich5 is the fifth harmonic component of the load current and so on. R shows the distributed resistance of the line and the voltage sources are shown to elaborate the factor explained above. Deshalb, these short current pulses create significant distortion in the electrical current and voltage wave shape. This distortion in shape is referred as a harmonic distortion and its measurement is carried out in term of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). This distortion travels back into the power source and can affect other equipment connected to the same source. Alle SMPS Geräte überall im System eine inhärente Eigenschaft installierten kontinuierliche Verzerrung der Stromquelle zu erzeugen, die eine zusätzliche Last auf dem Versorgungssystem setzt und die darin installierten Komponenten,,en,Harmonics ist auch in der industriellen Setups installiert von elektrischen Antrieben und DC-DC-Wandler erzeugt,,en,Unterbrechungsfreie Stromversorgung,,en,und Kompaktleuchtstofflampe,,en,CFL,,en,ist auch eine prominente Quelle in einem System von Harmonischen,,en,In der Regel hohe ungerade Harmonische ergibt sich aus einer Leistungselektronik-Wandler,,en,die Harmonischen werden in einem elektrischen Netzwerk, hergestellt durch,,en,Gleichrichter,,en,Verwendung von Eisenkern in Leistungstransformatoren,,en,Schweißgeräte,,en,Drehzahlgeregelte Antriebe,,en,Periodisches Umschalten von Spannung und Strömen,,en,Wechselstromgeneratoren von nicht-sinusförmigen Luftspalt,,en,Flußverteilung oder Zahn ripple,,en,Schaltgeräte wie SMPS,,en,UPS und CFL,,en. Harmonics are also produced by electric drives and DC-DC converters installed in industrial setups. Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) and Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) are also a prominent source of harmonics in a system. Usually high odd harmonics results from a power electronics converter. Zusammenfassend, the harmonics are produced in an electrical network by [2, 16, 26, 42]

  • Rectifiers
  • Use of iron core in power transformers
  • Welding equipment
  • Variable speed drives
  • Periodic switching of voltage and currents
  • AC generators by non-sinusoidal air gap, flux distribution or tooth ripple
  • Switching devices like SMPS, UPS and CFL

Es lohnt sich hier, dass die Spannung Harmonische Erwähnens direkt aufgrund eines Wechselstromgenerators entstehen kann,,en,aufgrund einer Lücke nicht sinusförmigen Luft,,en,Flussverteilung,,en,oder an Zahn ripple,,en,die durch die Wirkung der Schlitze hervorgerufen wird,,en,das Haus, die Wicklungen,,en,In großen Versorgungssysteme,,en,die größte wird darauf geachtet, einen sinusförmigen Ausgang aus dem Generator, um sicherzustellen,,,en,Aber selbst in diesem Fall jede Nichtlinearität in der Schaltung verursacht Harmonischen in der Stromwellenform,,,en,Harmonics kann auch durch die Eisenkerne in den Transformatoren erzeugt werden,,en,Solche Transformatorkerne haben eine nicht-lineare B-H-Kurve,,en,Spannungsverzerrung aufgrund der nicht-linearen Strom,,en,Probleme mit Harmonischen assoziiert,,en,Harmonisch verschmutztes System hat für seine Stabilität viele Bedrohungen,,en,Es behindert nicht nur die Energiequalität,,en,aber wenn ein Strom ist reich an Harmonischen,,en, due to a non-sinusoidal air gap, flux distribution, or to tooth ripple, which is caused by the effect of the slots, which house the windings. In large supply systems, the greatest care is taken to ensure a sinusoidal output from the generator, but even in this case any non-linearity in the circuit will give rise to harmonics in the current waveform. Harmonics can also be generated due to the iron cores in the transformers. Such transformer cores have a non-linear B-H curve [37].

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Abbildung 2.

Voltage distortion due to non-linear current

4. Problems associated with harmonics

Harmonically polluted system has many threats for its stability. It not only hampers the power quality (PQ) but when a current is rich in harmonics, wird von einem Gerät gezogen,,en,es Überlastungen des Systems,,en,Zum Beispiel dritter Harmonischer Strom hat eine Eigenschaft, die im Gegensatz zu anderer harmonischer Komponente fügt es in den neutralen Draht des Systems,,en,Dies führt zu einer Fehlauslösung des Schutzschalters,,en,Es wirkt sich auch auf die Isolation des neutralen Kabel,,en,Überlastung der Leitungen durch harmonisch verunreinigten Strom erhöht die Verluste, die mit den Drähten verbunden sind,,en,Es sollte auch nicht vergessen werden, dass nur die Leistung von Grundkomponente ist die Nutzleistung,,en,ruhen alle sind Verluste,,en,Diese zusätzlichen Verluste machen den Leistungsfaktor Arme, die in mehr Leistungsverlusten führen,,en,Die Gesamt zusammengefasst Wirkungen von Harmonischen in dem Leistungssystem umfassen die folgenden,,en,Harmonische Frequenzen können Resonanzzustand verursachen, wenn sie mit Leistungsfaktor-Korrekturkondensatoren kombiniert,,en, it overloads the system. For example third harmonic current has a property that unlike other harmonic component it adds up into the neutral wire of the system. This results in false tripping of circuit breaker. It also affects the insulation of the neutral cable. Overloading of the cables due to harmonically polluted current increases the losses associated with the wires. It should also be kept in mind that only the power from fundamental component is the useful power, rest all are losses. These additional losses make the power factor poor that results in more power losses. The overall summarized effects of harmonics in the power system include the following [9, 18, 39]

  • Harmonic frequencies can cause resonant condition when combined with power factor correction capacitors
  • Erhöhte Verluste in Systemelementen einschließlich Transformatoren und Erzeugungsanlagen,,en,Alterung der Isolierung,,en,Eine Unterbrechung in dem Kommunikationssystem,,en,Fehlauslösung von Leistungsschaltern,,en,Große Ströme in neutralen Drähten,,en,Die Verteilungstransformatoren haben eine Δ-Y-Verbindung,,en,Im Falle eines hoch dritten harmonischen Strom der Strom, der in dem Neutralleiter eingefangen wird Wärme erzeugt, die die Wärme im Inneren des Transformators erhöht,,en,Dies kann auf die reduzierte Lebensdauer und Derating des Transformators führen,,en,Die verschiedenen Arten von harmonischen haben ihre eigenen Auswirkungen auf die Energiesystem,,en,Zum Beispiel lassen Sie uns das überlegen,,en,Im Gegensatz zu dem symmetrischen Dreiphasensystem, wobei die Summe aller drei Phasen Null in einem neutralen System ist,,en,der dritte Harmonische von allen drei Phasen identisch ist,,en,So fügt es in dem neutralen Draht nach oben,,en
  • Ageing of insulation
  • Interruption in communication system
  • False tripping of circuit breakers
  • Large currents in neutral wires

The distribution transformers have a ∆-Y connection. In case of a highly third harmonic current the current that is trapped in the neutral conductor creates heat that increases the heat inside the transformer. This may lead to the reduced life and de-rating of transformer. The different types of harmonic have their own impact on power system. For instance let us consider the 3rd Harmonische. Contrary to the balanced three phase system where the sum of all the three phases is zero in a neutral system, the third harmonic of all the three phases is identical. So it adds up in the neutral wire. Das gleiche ist anwendbar auf triple-n Harmonischen,,en,ungerade Vielfache von,,en,fachen der Grund wie,,en,Diese harmonischen Ströme sind die Hauptursache für Fehlauslösungen und Ausfall des Erdschlussschutzes Relais,,en,Sie produzieren auch Wärme in dem Neutralleiter somit ein System einen dickeren Neutralleiter muss, wenn es dritte Harmonische Verschmutzung in sich hat,,en,Wenn ein Motor eine Spannungswellenform mit dritten harmonischen Inhalt in ihm gelieferten,,en,es wird nur zusätzliche Verluste entwickeln,,en,wie die Nutzleistung kommt nur aus der Grundkomponente,,en,Harmonics Überwachungsstandards,,en,Die Identifizierung der Harmonischen als ein Problem in Wechselstromnetzen,,en,hat die Dienstprogramme und die Regulierungsbehörden gezwungen, die Standards für die Harmonischen Überwachung und Bewertung zu entwickeln,,,en,Die Standards für die harmonische Steuerung so adressieren sowohl die Verbraucher als auch die Nützlichkeit,,en (odd multiples of 3 times the fundamental like 9th, 15th usw.). These harmonic currents are the main cause of false tripping and failure of earth fault protection relay. They also produce heat in the neutral wire thus a system needs a thicker neutral wire if it has third harmonic pollution in it. If a motor is supplied a voltage waveform with third harmonic content in it, it will only develop additional losses, as the useful power comes only from the fundamental component.

5. Harmonics monitoring standards

The identification of harmonics as a problem in AC power networks, has forced the utilities and regulatory authorities to devise the standards for harmonics monitoring and evaluation. The standards for harmonic control thus address both the consumers and the utility. Deshalb, wenn der Kunde nicht durch die Vorschriften bleibende und an dem Punkt Spannungsverzerrung gemeinsamen Kopplung zu schaffen das Dienstprogramm kann ihn bestrafen / sie,,en,Verschiedene namhafte Engineering Institute wie IEEE,,en,IEC und IET haben Gesetze entwickelt, um die Injektion von harmonischem Inhalt in dem Netz zu begrenzen,,en,Diese Standards sind vor allem hilfreich, um eine benutzerfreundliche gesunden Power-Quality-System zu erreichen,,en,IEEE-Standards sind für ihre Fähigkeit zu adressieren alle Regionen der Welt weithin zitiert,,en,Es gibt mehr als,,en,IEEE Standards für Elektrotechnik Felder,,en,IEEE-Standards auf der Netzqualität,,en,unsere Inspiration sind hier,,en,IEEE-Standard auf harmonische Steuerung der elektrischen Energiesystem wurde veröffentlicht in,,en,und deckt alle Aspekte im Zusammenhang Harmonischen,,en,Er definiert die maximale Harmonische bis Verzerrung,,en. Various renowned engineering institutes like IEEE, IEC and IET have devised laws to limit the injection of harmonic content in the grid. These standards are mostly helpful to achieve a user friendly healthy power quality system. IEEE standards are widely cited for their capability to address all the regions in the world. There are more than 1000 IEEE standards on electrical engineering fields. IEEE standards on power quality, jedoch, are our main inspiration here. IEEE standard on harmonic control in electrical power system was published in 1992 and it covers all aspects related to harmonics [7]. It defines the maximum harmonics distortion up to 5 % auf Spannungspegel ≤ 69kV,,en,als die Spannungspegel der zulässigen Grenzen für die Harmonischen in dieser Norm erhöht werden, werden verringert,,en,auf alle Spannungen ≥,,en,Es ist auch erwähnenswert, dass einzelne Spannung Erwähnen Verzerrung aus beginnt,,en,und endet bei,,en,für Spannungspegel von ≤ 69kV und ≥,,en,kV bzw.,,en,Neben den Standards, die die globalen Anforderungen im Hinblick entworfen halten,,en,regionale Behörden entwickeln ihre eigenen Standards entsprechend ihr Lastprofil und klimatische Bedingungen,,en,Die meisten Standards werden entsprechend den regionalen Anforderungen des Landes gemacht, während einige auf den globalen Bedürfnissen und Anforderungen basieren,,en,In Saudi-Arabien gibt es eine Regulierungsbehörde, die die zulässigen Grenzwerte und Standard-Betriebsverfahren für die Stromübertragung definiert,,en. Jedoch, as the voltage levels are increased the allowable limits for harmonics in this standard are decreased to 1.5 % on all voltages ≥ 161 kV. It is also worth mentioning that individual voltage distortion starts from 3 % and ends at 1.0 % for voltage levels of ≤ 69kV and ≥ 161 kV respectively. Besides the standards that are designed keeping in view the global requirements, regional authorities devise their own standards according to their load profile and climatic conditions. Most of the standards are made according to the regional requirements of the country whereas few are based on the global needs and requirements. In Saudi Arabia there exists a regulatory body that defines the permissible limits and standard operational procedures for electricity transmission, Verteilung und Erzeugung,,en,Dieser Körper wird als Strom und KWK-Regulierungsbehörde bekannt,,en,Neben Standards erarbeiten folgen sie auch einige Standards definiert durch UAE Stromversorgungsunternehmen,,en,Ein solcher Standard von Saudi Electric Company definiert,,en,SEC,,en,und wird als „Saudi-Grid Code“ bekannt,,en,Harmonics Grenze durch die saudischen Behörden festgelegt ist fast die gleiche wie IEEE-Standard, aber mit einer wenig flexible Grenze von,,en,THD für alle Netze im Bereich von 22kV-400kV-Betrieb,,en,vergleicht die IEEE-Norm,,en,die Abu Dhabi Vertriebsgesellschaft und der SEC-Standard für die Harmonischen begrenzen im elektrischen Netz,,en,Es ist interessant zu erwähnen, dass IEEE-Standard für Harmonische schweigt für die Bedingungen, unter denen ein System verunreinigt mit Zwischenharmonischen Steuerung,,en. This body is known as electricity and co-generation regulatory authority [38]. Apart from devising standards they also follow some standards defined by UAE power distribution companies. One such standard defined by Saudi Electric Company (SEC) in 2007 and is known as “Saudi Grid Code”. Harmonics limit set by the Saudi authorities is almost the same as IEEE standard but with a bit flexible limit of 3% THD for all networks operating within the range of 22kV-400kV [35, 38]. Tabelle 1 compares the IEEE standard, the Abu Dhabi distribution company and the SEC standard for the harmonics limit in the electric network. It is interesting to mention that IEEE standard for controlling harmonics is silent for the conditions where a system is polluted with inter-harmonics (nicht-ganzzahligen Frequenzen der Grundfrequenz,,,en,Für solche Bedingungen Energieversorger verwenden IEC Norm-Nummer 61000-2-2.The IEC auch die Kategorien für verschiedene elektronische Geräte in Standard-Nummer definiert,,en,Diese Vorrichtungen werden dann an verschiedenen zulässigen Grenzen von THD unterworfen,,en,Klasse A hat alle drei Phasen ausgeglichen Ausrüstung,,en,Nicht-portable Werkzeuge,,en,Audiogeräte,,en,Dimmer für nur Glühlampe,,en,Die Grenze für Klasse A wird entsprechend der harmonischen Ordnung variiert,,en,Also für Geräte der Klasse A der maximal zulässige harmonische Strom,,en,A für,,en,Die Schönheit dieser IEC-Norm ist, dass es auch für Leistungsfaktor bietet,,en,Zum Beispiel alle Geräte der Klasse C,,en,Lampen und Leuchten andere als die Glühlampe Dimmer,,en,haben,,en,harmonische Stromgrenze als eine Funktion des Schaltungsleistungsfaktors,,en,SEC Norm,,en,Abu Dhabi Verteilung,,en,Unternehmen,,en,IEEE Limits,,en). For such conditions power utilities use IEC standard number 61000-2-2.The IEC also defines the categories for different electronic devices in standard number 61000-3-2. These devices are then subjected to different allowable limits of THD. Zum Beispiel, class A has all three phase balanced equipment, non-portable tools, audio equipment, dimmers for only incandescent lamp. The limit for class A is varied according to the harmonic order. So for devices of class A the maximum allowable harmonic current is 1.08 A for 2nd, 2.3A for 3rd, 0.43A for 4th, 1.14A for 5th Harmonik. The beauty of this IEC standard is that it also caters for power factor. For example all devices of class C (lighting equipment other than the incandescent lamp dimmer) have 3rd harmonic current limit as a function of circuit power factor.

SEC Standard Abu Dhabi Distribution
Company
IEEE Limits
Harmonik THD Grenze,,en,das System,,cs,kV und 22 kV-400 kV bzw.,,en,für alle Spannungsebenen unter,,en,kV und,,en,für alle Spannungen über,,en,Vergleich von Harmonic Standards,,en,Die modernen Systeme basieren auf künstliche intelligente Techniken wie Fuzzy-Logik,,en,ANFIS und CI basierte Berechnungen reduzieren die Schwierigkeit des Data Mining, die für die Leistungsqualität Harmonischen bei der Neugestaltung der Standards hilft,,en,In den entwickelten Ländern wie Australien,,en,USA die Energieverteilung Unternehmen sind bereits verschoben teilweise zu Smart Grid und sie sind mit hoch entwickelten Sensoren und Messgeräte,,en,In Bezug auf der Smart-Grid-Umgebung dieser Sensoren, die Probleme bei der Milderung durch die Vorhersage, sie im Voraus helfen,,en,durch intelligente Messungen und mit Hilfe von ausgefeilten Algorithmen in der Lage, die PQ Probleme wie Harmonischen vorherzusagen,,en 5% für 400 V system, und 4% und 3% für 6.6-
20kV and 22kV-400kV respectively
THD Grenze,,en,das System,,cs,kV und 22 kV-400 kV bzw.,,en,für alle Spannungsebenen unter,,en,kV und,,en,für alle Spannungen über,,en,Vergleich von Harmonic Standards,,en,Die modernen Systeme basieren auf künstliche intelligente Techniken wie Fuzzy-Logik,,en,ANFIS und CI basierte Berechnungen reduzieren die Schwierigkeit des Data Mining, die für die Leistungsqualität Harmonischen bei der Neugestaltung der Standards hilft,,en,In den entwickelten Ländern wie Australien,,en,USA die Energieverteilung Unternehmen sind bereits verschoben teilweise zu Smart Grid und sie sind mit hoch entwickelten Sensoren und Messgeräte,,en,In Bezug auf der Smart-Grid-Umgebung dieser Sensoren, die Probleme bei der Milderung durch die Vorhersage, sie im Voraus helfen,,en,durch intelligente Messungen und mit Hilfe von ausgefeilten Algorithmen in der Lage, die PQ Probleme wie Harmonischen vorherzusagen,,en 5% für 400 V system, und 4% und 3% für 6.6-
20kV and 22kV-400kV respectively
5% for all voltage levels below
69kV and 3% for all voltages above 161 kV

Tabelle 1.

Comparison of Harmonic Standards [7, 35, 38]

The modern systems based on artificial intelligent techniques like Fuzzy logic, ANFIS and CI based computations are reducing the difficulty of data mining that helps in redesigning the standards for power quality harmonics [24, 25]. In developed countries like Australia, Kanada, USA the power distribution companies are already partially shifted to smart grid and they are using sophisticated sensors and measuring instruments.

In terms of smart grid environment these sensors will help in mitigating the problems by predicting them in advance. Smart Grid, by taking intelligent measurements and by the aid of sophisticated algorithms will be able to predict the PQ problems like harmonics, Fehlerstrom im Voraus,,en,Wesentlich ist zu erwähnen, dass die Überwachung der Spannungsqualität der laufenden 3G-Technologien wird von chinesischen Forschern durchgeführt worden,,en,Sie verwendeten Modul von GPRS, die von der Analyse der Daten in Echtzeit fähig ist und sein Algorithmus macht es intelligent genug, um die gewünschten PQ Informationen zu erhalten,,en,Harmonics Messung,,en,Die eigentliche Herausforderung in einer harmonisch verschmutzten Umwelt zu verstehen und den besten Punkt für die Messung der Harmonischen bezeichnen,,en,Heute ist die Revolution in der Elektronik hat das AC-System so sehr, dass in einem Dienstprogramm fast jeder Benutzer verkorkst ist ein Beitrag zu dem Harmonischen Strom,,en,das Lastprofil in jedem häuslichen Bereich variiert von Stunde zu Stunde innerhalb eines Tages,,en,Also, um mit dem Energiebedarf gerecht zu werden und den Leistungsfaktor zu verbessern,,en. It is pertinent to mention that the power quality monitoring using the on-going 3G technologies has been implemented by Chinese researchers. They used module of GPRS that is capable of analyzing the real time data and its algorithm makes it intelligent enough to get the desired PQ information [22].

5. Harmonics measurement

The real challenge in a harmonically polluted environment is to understand and designate the best point for measuring the harmonics. Nowadays the revolution in electronics has messed up the AC system so much that almost every user in a utility is a contributor to the harmonics current. Weiter, the load profile in any domestic area varies from hour to hour within a day. So in order to cope with the energy demand and to improve the power factor, Dienstprogramme benötigt und Ausschalten der Leistungsfaktor-Korrektur-Kondensatoren schalten,,en,Diese periodische und nicht-einheitliche Schalt schafft auch Harmonischen im System,,en,Die Lastinformation in einem Gebiet, obwohl,,en,bieten einige grundlegende Informationen über die Ordnung der Harmonischen, die in einem System,,,en,Diese Informationen sind sehr nützlich, da sie eine Vogelperspektive von harmonischem Inhalt gibt,,en,Aber für die genaue Identifizierung der Harmonischen ist es notwendig, die Wellenform verzerrt, mit dem Netzanalysator oder mit einigen digitalen Oszilloskop zur Fast Fourier Transform zu synthetisieren,,en,FFT,,en,Abb. 3,,en,zeigt eine allgemeine Synthese des durch einen gesteuerten Gleichrichter gezogenen Stromes,,en,einmal identifiziert,,en,die Höhe und die Art der Harmonischen,,en,können die Schritte zur Milderung erdacht werden,,,en. This periodic and non-uniform switching also creates harmonics in the system. The load information in an area although, provide some basic information about the order of harmonic present in a system. Such information is very useful as it gives a bird eye view of harmonic content. But for the exact identification of the harmonics it is necessary to synthesize the distorted waveform using the power quality analyzer or using some digital oscilloscope for Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Zum Beispiel Fig.3 shows a general synthesis of the current drawn by a controlled rectifier. Once identified, the level and type of harmonics (3rd, 5th usw.) the steps to mitigation can be devised. Es sollte beachtet werden, dass die richtige Messung der Schlüssel für die richtige Gestaltung der harmonischen Filter ist,,en,Aber die Harmonischen Pegel können in einem System an verschiedenen Punkten der Messung abweichen,,en,Dienstprogramme müssen bei der Ermittlung der richtigen Stelle für harmonische Messung in einem System sehr genau sein,,,en,Unter den Normen,,en,es ist IEEE-Standard,,en,daß umreißt die Betriebsabläufe zur Durchführung der Messungen aus harmonischen,,en,Diese Norm jedoch nicht angeben, keine Einschränkung in Bezug auf die Integrationsdauer der Messeinrichtung mit dem System,,en,es ist jedoch,,en,schränkt den Nutzen ein Protokoll für die monatlichen Aufzeichnungen maximaler Nachfrage zu halten,,en,Es sind verschiedene Vorrichtungen zur Unterstützung miteinander verwendet, um die harmonischen Messungen in einem System durchzuführen,,,en,Dazu gehören die folgenden,,en,Power Quality Analyzer,,en. But the harmonics level may differ at different points of measurement in a system. Deshalb, utilities need to be very precise in identifying the correct point for harmonic measurement in a system. Among the standards, it is IEEE standard 519-1992 that outlines the operational procedures for carrying out the harmonic measurements. This standard however does not state any restriction regarding the integration duration of the measurement equipment with the system. It however, restricts the utility to maintain a log for monthly records of maximum demand [5]. Various devices are used in support with each other to carry out the harmonic measurements in a system. These include the following

  • Power Quality Analyser

  • Messwandler Wandler,,en,CT und PT,,en,Typischer Leitungsstrom eines gesteuerten Wandler,,en,Verschiedene namhafte Unternehmen entwerfen und produzieren hervorragende PQ-Analysatoren,,en,Dazu gehören FLUKE,,en,AEMC,,en,Dranetz und elspec,,en,Diese Unternehmen entwerfen einphasige und dreiphasige PQ-Analysatoren, die alle dominanten harmonischen Frequenzen messen können,,en,Die Ausrüstung, die für harmonische Messung verwendet wird, ist auch gebunden an einige Einschränkungen für die richtige harmonische Messung,,en,Diese Einschränkung ist technischer Natur wie für eine genaue Messung aller harmonischen Ströme unterhalb der,,en,die Abtastfrequenz sollte mindestens das Zweifache der gewünschten Eingangsbandbreite oder 8K-Abtastungen pro Sekunde in diesem Fall sein,,,en,zu decken Systeme 50Hz und 60Hz,,en,Meist,,en (CT and PT)

media/image7.png

Abbildung 3.

Typical line current of a controlled converter [26]

Various renowned companies are designing and producing excellent PQ analyzers. These include FLUKE, AEMC, HIOKI, DRANETZ and ELSPEC. These companies design single phase and three phase PQ analyzers that are capable of measuring all the dominant harmonic frequencies. The equipment that is used for harmonic measurement is also bound to some limitations for proper harmonic measurement. This limitation is technical in nature as for accurate measurement of all harmonic currents below the 65th Harmonische, the sampling frequency should be at least twice the desired input bandwidth or 8k samples per second in this case, to cover 50Hz and 60Hz systems [5]. Mostly, Die PQ-Analysatoren werden zusammen mit den CT-basierten Sonden, aber in Abhängigkeit von der Spannung und Stromstärken einen Designer wählen, können die CT und PT mit breiten Betriebsfrequenzbereich und eine geringe Verzerrung geliefert,,en,Der Abstand der Ausrüstung mit dem Wandler ist auch sehr wichtig bei der Messung Harmonischen,,en,Wenn der Abstand lang ist, dann kann Rauschen die Messung beeinflusst daher richtig abgeschirmte Kabel wie Koaxialkabel oder Glasfaserkabel sind stark von den Experten empfohlen,,en,die Messung von Harmonischen sollte Verknüpfungspunkt gemacht werden,,,en,oder an der Stelle, wo nichtlineare Last angebracht ist,,en,Dazu gehört Industriestandorte in speziellen, wie sie der Kern Mitwirkenden bei injizierenden harmonischen Strömen im System,,en,Harmonics Spülen Techniken,,en. The distance of equipment with the transducer is also very important in measuring harmonics. If the distance is long then noise can affect the measurement therefore properly shielded cables like coaxial cable or fiber optic cables are highly recommended by the experts [5]. Kurz, the measurement of harmonics should be made on Point of Common Coupling (PCC) or at the point where non-linear load is attached. This includes industrial sites in special as they are the core contributors in injecting harmonic currents in the system.

6. Harmonics purging techniques

Techniques have been designed and tested to tackle this power quality issue since the problem is identified by the researchers. There are several techniques in the literature that addresses the mitigation of harmonics. All these techniques can be classified under the umbrella of following

  1. Passive harmonic filter

  2. Active harmonic filter

  3. Hybrid-Oberwellenfilter

  4. Switching techniques

6.1. Passive Oberschwingungsfilter

Passive filter techniques are among the oldest and perhaps the most widely used techniques for filtering the power line harmonics. Besides the harmonics reduction passive filters can be used for the optimization of apparent power in a power network. They are made of passive elements like resistors, capacitors and inductors. Use of such filters needs large capacitors and inductors thus making the overall filter heavier in weight and expensive in cost. These filters are fixed and once installed they become part of the network and they need to be redesigned to get different filtering frequencies. They are considered best for three phase four wire network [18]. They are mostly the low pass filter that is tuned to desired frequencies. Giacoletto and Park presented an analysis on reducing the line current harmonics due to personal computer power supplies [10]. Their work suggested that the use of such filters is good for harmonics reduction but this will increase the reactive component of line current. Various kind of passive filter techniques are given below [18, 19].

  1. Series passive filters

  2. Shunt passive filters

  3. Low pass filters or line LC trap filters

  4. Phase shifting transformers

6.1.1. Series passive filters

Series passive filters are kinds of passive filters that have a parallel LC filter in series with the supply and the load. Series passive filter shown in Fig.4 are considered good for single phase applications and specially to mitigate the third harmonics. Jedoch, they can be tuned to other frequencies also. They do not produce resonance and offer high impedance to the frequencies they are tuned to. These filters must be designed such that they can carry full load current. These filters are maintenance free and can be designed to significantly high power values up to MVARs [4]. Comparing to the solutions that employ rotating parts like synchronous condensers they need lesser maintenance.

media/image8_w.jpg

Abbildung 4.

Passive Series Filter [18]

6.1.2. Shunt passive filters

These type of filters are also based on passive elements and offer good results for filtering out odd harmonics especially the 3rd, 5th und 7th. Some researchers have named them as single tuned filters, second order damped filters and C type damped filters [3]. As all these filters come in shunt with the line they fall under the cover of shunt passive filters, , wie in Fig.5. Increasing the order of harmonics makes the filter more efficient in working but it reduces the ease in designing. They provide low impedance to the frequencies they are tuned for. Since they are connected in shunt therefore they are designed to carry only harmonic current [18]. Their nature of being in shunt makes them a load itself to the supply side and can carry 30-50% load current if they are feeding a set of electric drives [13]. Economic aspects reveal that shunt filters are always economical than the series filters due to the fact that they need to be designed only on the harmonic currents. Therefore they need comparatively smaller size of L and C, thereby reducing the cost. Weiter, they are not designed with respect to the rated voltage, thus makes the components lesser costly than the series filters [33]. Jedoch, these types of filters can create resonant conditions in the circuit.

media/image9_w.jpg

Abbildung 5.

Different order type shunt filters [3]

6.1.3. Low pass filter

Low pass filters are widely used for mitigation of all type of harmonic frequencies above the threshold frequency. They can be used only on nonlinear loads. They do not pose any threats to the system by creating resonant conditions. They improve power factor but they must be designed such that they are capable of carrying full load current. Some researchers have referred them as line LC trap filters [19]. These filters block the unwanted harmonics and allow a certain range of frequencies to pass. Jedoch, very fine designing is required as far as the cut off frequency is concerned.

6.1.4. Phase shifting transformers

The nasty harmonics in power system are mostly odd harmonics. One way to block them is to use phase shifting transformers. It takes harmonics of same kind from several sources in a network and shifts them alternately to 180° degrees and then combine them thus resulting in cancelation. We have classified them under passive filters as transformer resembles an inductive network. The use of phase shifting transformers has produced considerable success in suppressing harmonics in multilevel hybrid converters [34]. S. H. H. Sadeghi et.al. designed an algorithm that based on the harmonic profile incorporates the phase shift of transformers in large industrial setups like steel industry [36].

6.2. Aktive Oberwellenfilter

In an Active Power Filter (APF) we use power electronics to introduce current components to remove harmonic distortions produced by the non-linear load. Abbildung 6 shows the basic concept of an active filter [27]. They detect the harmonic components in the line and then produce and inject an inverting signal of the detected wave in the system [27]. The two driving forces in research of APF are the control algorithm for current and load current analysis method [23]. Active harmonic filters are mostly used for low-voltage networks due to the limitation posed by the required rating on power converter [21].

media/image10_w.jpg

Abbildung 6.

Conceptual demonstration of Active filter [27]

They are used even in aircraft power system for harmonic elimination [6]. Same like passive filters they are classified with respect to the connection method and are given below [40].

  1. Series active filters

  2. Shunt active filters

Since, it uses power electronic based components therefore in literature a lot of work has been done on the control of active filters.

6.2.1. Serie aktiven Filter

The series filter is connected in series with the ac distribution network as show in Fig.7 [33]. It serves to offset harmonic distortions caused by the load as well as that present in the AC system. These types of active filters are connected in series with load using a matching transformer. They inject voltage as a component and can be regarded as a controlled voltage source [33]. The drawback is that they only cater for voltage harmonics and in case of short circuit at load the matching transformer has to bear it [31].

6.2.2. Shunt active filter

The parallel filter is connected in parallel with the AC distribution network. Parallel filters are also known as shunt filters and offset the harmonic distortions caused by the non-linear load. They work on the same principal of active filters but they are connected in parallel as stated that is they act as a current source in parallel with load [21]. They use high computational capabilities to detect the harmonics in line.

media/image11_w.jpg

Abbildung 7.

Series active filters [33]

Mostly microprocessor or micro-controller based sensors are used to estimate harmonic contents and to decide the control logic. Power semiconductor devices are used especially the IGBT. Some researchers claim that before the advent of IGBTs active filters were seldom use due to overshoot in budget [11]. Jedoch, despite of their usefulness shunt active filters have many drawbacks. Practically they need a large rated PWM inverter with quick response against system parameters changes. If the system has passive filters attached somewhere, as in case of hybrid filters then the injected currents may circulate in them [28].

6.3. Hybrid harmonic filters

These types of filters combine the passive and active filters. They contain the advantages of active filters and lack the disadvantages of passive and active filters. They use low cost high power passive filters to reduce the cost of power converters in active filters that is why they are now very much popular in industry. Hybrid filters are immune to the system impedance, thus harmonic compensation is done in an efficient manner and they do not produce the resonance with system impedance [29]. The control techniques used for these types of filters are based on instantaneous control, on p-q theory and id-ichq. K.N.M.Hasan et.al. presented a comparative study among the p-q and id-ichq techniques and concluded that in case of voltage distortions the id-ichq method provides slightly better results [12]. They are usually combined in the following ways [21]

  1. Passive series active series hybrid filters

  2. Passive series active shunt hybrid filters

  3. Passive shunt active series hybrid filters

  4. Passive shunt active shunt hybrid filters

6.3.1. Passive series active series hybrid filters

These type of hybrid filters have both kind of filters connected in series with the load as shown in Fig.8 and are considered good for diode rectifiers feeding a capacitive load [32]

6.3.2. Passive series active shunt hybrid filters

This breed of hybrid filter has passive part in series with load and active filter in parallel. AdilM. Al-Zamil et al. proposed such type of filters in their paper and used the high power capability. of passive filter by placing them in series with the load. They used an active filter with space vector pulse with modulation (SVPWM) and implemented it on micro-controller. They used only line current sensors to compute all the parameters required for reference current generation. Their proposed system worked satisfactorily up to the 33rd harmonic and the results shown are based on a system with line reactance of 0.13 könnte. In their system the bandwidth required for active filter is relatively less due to the passive filter that takes care of the rising and falling edges of load current. They proposed that while designing hybrid system the line filter L and capacitance C of active filter needs a compromise in selection depending on the acceptable level of switching frequency ripple current and minimum acceptable ripple voltage [1].

6.3.3. Passive shunt active shunt hybrid filters

These types of filters have both the passive and active filters connected in shunt with the load as shown in Fig.9 [21]. In a comparative study J.Turunen et al. claimed that they require smallest transformation ratio of coupling transformer as a result they need a fairly high power rating for a small load and in case of high power loads the problem of dc link control results in poor current filtering [43].

6.3.4. Passive shunt active series hybrid filters

As its name implies it is a kind of hybrid filter that has an active filter in series and a passive filter in shunt as shown in Fig.10. J. Turunen et al. in a comparative study stated that this breed of hybrid filter utilizes very small transformation ratio therefore for same rating of load their power rating required is large compared to the load [43].

media/image12_w.jpg

Abbildung 8.

Passive series active series hybrid filters [32]

media/image13_w.jpg

Abbildung 9.

Passive shunt active shunt hybrid filters [21]

media/image14_w.jpg

Abbildung 10.

Active series passive shunt hybrid filters [29]

6.4. Switching techniques

Besides using the method of installing filters, power electronics is so versatile that up to some extent harmonics can be eliminated using switching techniques. These techniques may vary from the increasing the pulse number to advance algorithm based Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The most widely used sine triangle PWM was proposed in 1964. Later in 1982 Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) was proposed [20]. PWM is a magical technique of switching that gives unique results by varying the associated parameters like modulation index, switching frequency and the modulation ratio. The frequency modulation ratio ‘m’ if taken as odd automatically removes even harmonics [17, 26]. Here the increase in switching frequency reduces the current harmonics but this makes the switching losses too much. Weiter, we cannot keep on increasing switching frequency because this imposes the EMC problems [15]. D.G.Holmes et al. presented an analysis for carrier based PWM and claimed that it is possible to use some analytical solutions to pin point the harmonic cancelation using different modulation techniques. Sideband harmonics can be eliminated if the designer uses natural or asymmetric regular sampled PWM [14]. The output can be improved by playing with the modulation index. One specialized type of PWM is called Selective Harmonic Elimination (SHE) PWM or the programmed harmonic elimination scheme. This technique is based on Fourier analysis of phase to ground voltage. It is basically a combination of square wave switching and the PWM. Here proper switching angles selection makes the target harmonic component zero [26, 30]. In SHE technique a minimum of 0.5 modulation index is possible [41]. But even the best SHE left the system with some unfiltered harmonics. J. Pontt et al. presented a technique of treating the unfiltered harmonics due to the SHE PWM. They stated that if we use SHE PWM for elimination of 11th und 13th harmonics for 12 pulse configuration then the harmonics of order 23th, 25th, 35th und 37th are one that play vital role in defining the voltage distortions. They proposed the use of three level active front end converters. They suggested a modulation index of 0.8-0.98 to mitigate the harmonics of order 23rd, 25th und 35th, 37th [30]. With some modifications researchers have shown that SHE PWM can be used at very low switching frequency of 350 Hz. Javier Napoles et al. presented this technique and give it a new name of Selective Harmonic Mitigation (SHM) PWM. They used seven switching states and results makes the selective harmonics equal to zero [8]. Das ist ausgezeichnet, da in ihnen die selektive harmonische Notwendigkeit nicht PWM Null zu sein,,en,Es ist ausreichend, um in herkömmlichen PWM es unter der zulässigen Grenze zu bringen,,,en,Siriroj Sirisukprasert et al,,fr,eine optimale harmonische Reduktionstechnik dargestellt durch die Natur der Ausgangsstufenwellenformen variierende und variiert die Modulationsindizes,,en,Sie testeten ihre vorgeschlagene Technik zur Multi-Level-Wechselrichter, die besser sind als die beiden Pegel herkömmlichen Invertern,,en,Sie ausgeschlossen, die sehr schmal und sehr breite Impulse von dem Schaltwellenform,,en,Im Gegensatz zu SHE PWM, wie oben erörterte sie durch Umschalten ihres Leistungsschalter nur einmal einen Zyklus die minimale Dreh und Ausschaltzeiten sichergestellt,,en,Im Gegensatz zu herkömmlichen SHE PWM,,en,in diesem Fall kann der Modulationsindex variiert bis,,en. It is sufficient in conventional PWM to bring it under the allowable limit. Siriroj Sirisukprasert et al. presented an optimal harmonic reduction technique by varying the nature of output stepped waveforms and varied the modulation indexes. They tested their proposed technique on multilevel inverters that are better than the two level conventional inverters. They excluded the very narrow and very wide pulses from the switching waveform. Unlike SHE PWM as discussed above they ensured the minimum turn on and turn off by switching their power switches only once a cycle. Contrary to traditional SHE PWM, in this case the modulation index can vary till 0.1. Die Ausgabe ist eine gestufte Wellenform für verschiedene Stufen klassifiziert sie die Produktion von Modulationsindex so hoch,,en,pro Zyklus niedrig und mittlere und der eigentliche Punkt von Interesse ist, dass für alle diese drei Klassen von Modulationsindices, sobald der Schalt pro Schalter,,en,Einige Forscher verwendeten Trapez PWM-Verfahren für harmonische Steuerung,,en,Diese Art von PWM auf unipolare PWM Schalt basierend,,en,Hier ist eine trapezförmige Wellenform mit einer Dreieckswellenform verglichen und die sich ergebende PWM ist mit dem Leistungsschalter zugeführt,,,en,Wie andere harmonische Beseitigung Techniken in PWM-basierten Techniken haben die Forscher die Verwendung von AI basierter Techniken einschließlich FL und ANN vorgeschlagen,,en,In diesem Kapitel ist eine der wichtigsten Energiequalitätsprobleme, die der Grund vielen Netzstörungen in einem elektrischen Netz ist,,en, low and medium and the real point of interest is that for all these three classes of modulation indexes the switching is once per cycle per switch [41]. Some researchers used trapezoidal PWM method for harmonic control. This kind of PWM is based on unipolar PWM switching. Here a trapezoidal waveform is compared with a triangular waveform and the resulting PWM is supplied to the power switches. Like other harmonic elimination techniques in PWM based techniques researchers have proposed the use of AI based techniques including FL and ANN.

 

7. Abschluss

This chapter summarizes one of the major power quality problems that is the reason of many power system disturbances in an electrical network. Die möglichen Quellen von Harmonischen werden zusammen mit ihren Wirkungen auf die Verteilungssystemkomponenten einschließlich des Trafos diskutiert,,en,Schaltzahnräder und das Schutzsystem,,en,Die regulatorischen Standards für die Begrenzung von Harmonischen und die Messtechniken werden hier vorgestellt,,en,Die Reinigungstechniken von Harmonischen werden ebenfalls vorgestellt und verschiedene Art von harmonischen Filter werden kurz vorgestellt,,en,Zur Stärkung der Wissensbasis,,en,Dieses Kapitel ist auch die Steuerung der Harmonischen unter Verwendung von PWM-Techniken diskutiert,,en,Durch dieses Kapitel haben wir die technische Informationen in diesem Bereich zu sammeln versucht,,en,Ein gründliches Verständnis der Harmonischen dem Dienstprogramm Ingenieur einen Rahmen bieten, die oft in der Lösung der Forschungsarbeit erforderlich ist, um Harmonische im Zusammenhang,,en,M Al-Zamil,,en,Ein Torrey,,en,Eine passive Reihe,,en, switch gears and the protection system. The regulatory standards for the limitation of harmonics and their measurement techniques are also presented here. The purging techniques of harmonics are also presented and various kind of harmonic filters are briefly presented. To strengthen the knowledge base, this chapter has also discussed the control of harmonics using PWM techniques. By this chapter we have attempted to gather the technical information in this field. A thorough understanding of harmonics will provide the utility engineers a framework that is often required in the solution of research work related to harmonics.

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